Corpus of Electronic Texts Edition
The Miseries and Beauties of Ireland (Author: Jonathan Binns)
chapter 4
Examination continued — Course of management in farms — Mode of trying the quality of corn — Red and white clover — Failure of Potato crop — Superstitions connected with it — Arthur Young — Black rot — Manures — Milk and Butter — Breed of cattle — Fences and trespasses — Taxation — Roads — Emigration — Pawnbrokers — Spirit shops — Intelligence of the people — Remarks on tenant-right — Bog-land — Description of cabins — Poverty and contentment — Beds — Civility and resignation of the Irish — Stock of small farmers — Flax — Gate-pillars — Tethered pigs — Poor Laws.
The Irish acre is principally used in this district, though the landlords are introducing the English. The barony is mostly under tillage, the usual average of the tillage farms being from three to ten acres. One acre out of every three is devoted to the keeping of the cow, and in a farm of six acres two cows and sometimes a horse are kept. One acre, with a little assistance from clover, was stated to be quite sufficient for one of the cows of this district.
p.69
Much more produce is raised now than formerly; and five times as much grain is exported. "I can remember," said Hogan, who seemed about fifty years of age, "when no corn was sold at all to pay the rent; when we used to get three shillings a yard for the web; we get but 1s. 2d. for it now. I well mind Jacky Cowan making from four shillings to 5s. 5d. a day, and now he could not make more than one shilling at the best. If a man had many daughters and a family at that time, they would pay the rent, when spinning and weaving was good." "The produce," said Morgan, "is increased according to the population;" and this seems to be the truth. The pressure arising from a very dense population requires a corresponding exertion, and latterly this exertion has no object to turn to but agriculture.
Two-thirds of a farm are generally appropriated to corn, flax, and potatoes; the sheep are sent to graze the mountains. There is no naked fallow, and the people are very negligent in weeding their crops, which costs them one shilling an Irish acre. The corn is threshed immediately: "If you
p.70
were here in November," it was stated, "you'd see many a stack without grain; they are all obliged to pay up the rent of the year at November." They consider the straw in a great degree lost as food for cattle, whereas, if they could meet the rent without threshing the corn, except as the cattle gradually want it, they would conceive it a great benefit. The produce is generally sold in Newry, ten miles distant. The tenant having taken the corn to market, a factor runs an instrument called a trier into the sack, and, according to the sample extracted, gives a ticket to the seller to take the corn to a certain store, and there, if the rest of the corn be of the same description, the grain is passed and paid for. If, however, there be any of it worse than the sample, the price is lowered; though, should it so happen that the sample had been taken from the worst part of the sack, and that the rest was of a better quality, the merchant would give no advance.
Clover, vetches, trefoil, and rye-grass, are all sown to a limited extent in this barony — a small
p.71
quantity of white clover being sown amongst the red, for the purpose of preventing fermentation in the stomachs of the cattle. Mr. Lindsay has succeeded in growing turnips. Morgan also stated, that having read Mr. Blacker's pamphlet, he was induced to try turnips; that they grew very well with him, and that he found them a better food for his cattle than potatoes. The chief culture, however, is in potatoes, oats, and flax, few new plants having been introduced. There had been great deficiencies in the potato crop for the last three years. The cause is not ascertained. The most judicious persons, according to Murphy, attribute the failure to the succession of mild winters, which causes the plant to grow too early, and thus wastes its vegetative powers. He stated that formerly, if, in digging, a potato happened to be cut with the spade, or otherwise injured, it used to heal again, and was the one usually selected for planting; whereas now, the people carefully set such aside, never planting them, for wherever they have tried them latterly, a failure has ensued. "I don't know why they fail," said
p.72
Morgan, "but there is a knowledgeable man near Castlewellan, who says that there is a great multitude of flies coming through the air, which have swords penetrating the potatoes; he says they can be seen through a glass." "Our great Creator," remarked Cowan, "is not pleased with us; he wishes to punish us, and to shew us we are under his scourge." These answers sufficiently prove the great perplexity in which this most important question is involved. Greater care is taken than formerly in selecting the seed, people of the inland districts procuring it from the sea side where the land has been manured with sea weed, and vice versa. Though this change has proved beneficial, they nevertheless very often fail. Formerly they used to cut the seed a fortnight before planting, and threw it aside, and yet it grew very well; now they would not risk the seed for a day.
Arthur Young mentions a disease called the black rot as known in Ireland when he wrote his tour in the year 1779: — "In the county of Tyrone, towards Ardmagh and Dungannon, they
p.73
will bring limestone fourteen or fifteen miles, burn it, and sprinkle their potato land with it to prevent the black rot." It is a satisfaction to know that a disease similar to that which has lately affected potatoes, and which existed formerly, was either extinguished or worn out, and it may reasonably be hoped that the present disease may not reach so serious an extent as has been anticipated, but like the dreadful malady, the cholera, prove a periodical attack only. A kind of potato called waste reds is mostly cultivated, but they are not good after June. The apple potato is of the best quality, and is used later in the season, but it is longer in ripening. A person in Newcastle preserved his potatoes by depositing them in a pit in the earth six feet deep, watering and turning them occasionally. Produce per statute acre, potatoes 6 tons; oats 15 cwt.; clover 2 tons. Rent from 18s. to 20s.
The manures in general use are lime and dung; the former being brought from Rostrevor, after having been boated across the bay from Carlingford. The farmers burn it with turf. Some idea
p.74
of the anxiety to obtain it may be formed from the fact, that in many cases the lime is carted to the distance of twelve Irish miles from Rostrevor, and in the northern parts of the barony persons fetch it from Moira, a distance of seventeen miles. The cost of the lime when laid on the farm, is estimated at from 1s. 6d. to 2s. per barrel of four bushels. Several small farmers stated that they collected more manure in proportion than the large farmers; the gathering of it is a matter of constant interest with every member of the family. The practice of burning land does not prevail to any considerable extent; the landlords are generally opposed to it. It is believed, however, that it would be advantageous to burn the surface of a rough bog.
The quality of the butter is generally considered second rate, being packed from several churnings (a necessary consequence of small holdings). The increase of intercourse with England does not appear to have induced a better mode of saving butter. "When we used to get 1s. 3d. and
p.75
1s. 4d. per lb.," said the witnesses, "we had more reason to be particular." Cheese, of which but little is made, sells at from 2 1/2d. to 3d. per lb. The quantity of milk given by one of the best cows may be considered about twelve quarts a day in summer, and three in winter. A cow will give in the year about 64 lbs. of butter; sometimes, however, soon after calving, she will give 1 lb. per day. The cows are of a small breed; but some improvement has taken place. That in most request is a mixture between the Irish and the Ayrshire; the Ayrshire cross increases the milk without diminishing the natural hardihood of the native cattle. Black bulls, without horns, are preferred by the farmers; their produce, when young, is exported to Scotland, and thence, I presume, afterwards sent to England as Scotch cattle. The value of a good breeding cow is from six to £8; that of a bull, about £6. No cattle are fattened here; they are sent from the mountain grazing to England. Artificial feeding is by no means common, and is increasing very slowly. As there are very few natural meadows, not more
p.76
than one-twentieth part of the cattle get hay in winter, though nearly all are housed; their food consists of straw and potatoes. Clover-hay, almost the only kind grown, is given to horses. In the low lands scarcely any sheep are kept. Sometimes a farmer keeps one to go among his cows. The breed is very small, and nearly the same as formerly; the wool, stated to be of a coarse hairy description, weighs from three to six pounds per sheep, and sells at from 8d. to 1s. a pound.
Some of the fences are of stone, others of hawthorn, but the generality are of whins or furze, and are always made by the tenant. Few disputes arise in the low lands from the state of the fences; but in the mountains, where no fences exist, frequent contention results from cattle straying over their limits. The losses, however, from such trespasses are inconsiderable. If a summons be given for trespass, the fine is so much a head; but if much damage be done, and the summons be for the amount of injury, a valuator, generally some farmer in the
p.77
neighbourhood, is appointed to ascertain the amount.
Taxation is about one-eighth of the rent; the amount paid yearly as grand jury cess varying from 2s. 6d. to 3s. per Irish acre. A certain sum is laid on each townland according to the number of acres, and the same rate is fixed on bad land as on good. It is collected by two men in each townland, who receive sixpence in every pound. It must be paid six days before each assizes, and levied in two assessments. There is no parish cess now for coffins; there used to be about four years ago, but now two respectable men go about the neighbourhood, and collect whatever they think necessary. No complaint was made against tithe in this barony. In some parts none is demanded from the people, the landlords having undertaken to pay it. In most places it amounts to about one shilling per acre. There is but little voluntary taxation. Some few shopkeepers, who are also farmers, pay towards the support of the dispensaries, but it is not a common practice among them.
p.78
The roads are hilly, but in other respects good. It was agreed on all hands that they had improved considerably within the last twenty years. They are now capable of carrying much greater weights than formerly — this, however, is owing as much to the improvement in carriages as to the amendment of the roads themselves. Twenty years ago one horse could draw to market eight or ten cwt. only, he can now take fifteen. "Although," remarked Mahony, "this improvement in conveyance has been of great service to the farmers, I never heard the increase of rent attributed to that cause."
There had been very little emigration this year; the people were not able to go out; the emigrants are chiefly those who are able to pay their way. Some time since people used to sell their little farms and go, but now they are more reluctant to part with their holdings. "It has partly been the case," said Mr. Rowan, "that the substantial farmers have been driven away by the nominal rents promised by the peasantry;" the farmers present did not think so; they said that some
p.79
sold their small holdings and went away, because they were sinking, and did not wish to be exposed where they had been better off. On inquiring whether they who had hitherto forborne to do so, would now emigrate if a free passage to America were given, Mr. Rowan stated that "several would, because their privileges were infringed upon, as Protestants." Hogan explained the circumstance thus: — "Until lately," said he, "the Roman Catholics got no leases of land, but the Protestants had good ones; and when their leases were falling in now, the landlords were raising the rents on them, as well as on the Roman Catholics, and may be some of them did not like that and went away." An impression prevails among the people, that when a free passage to America is afforded, they run the risk of a kind of obligation or bondage, and are not set at liberty; if they were assured that upon landing they would be under no restraint, numbers would be glad to go. Young women especially would be anxious to emigrate, because, in consequence of the introduction of spinning machinery,
p.80
their employment is entirely at an end. As it is, some of them have lately gone; others go to England and get into service. The reason why more labourers do not emigrate is, that they cannot afford to pay for the passage; they scrape together as much as carries them to England, but cannot raise the means of paying for the long passage. They do not seem disposed to go to Canada, accounts being spread among them that it is already too crowded, but they think favourably of Kentucky. On inquiring whether the emigration of several of the labourers would relieve the rest by causing them to have regular employment, the reply was — "If two hundred and fifty labourers were to go; indeed if all were to go, the farmers could do without them."
There is but one pawnbroker in the parish, and he went there about four or five years ago. There never was one before him. "Some," said Branagan, "pawn a coat as the best thing they have to pawn; sometimes they pawn the blanket and keep the quilt, sometimes the quilt and keep the blanket; sometimes even their tools, if they have
p.81
nothing else, which prevents their going to work, but this is very rare. The interest usually charged is one penny per month on a shilling; and if the article remains in only one hour, they are obliged to pay the money, besides one penny for the ticket. There is no other expense, unless you lose the ticket, and then you must pay a shilling for the stop ticket." An affidavit before the magistrates will be sufficient, but then, as one of the witnesses observed, "you must pay sixpence, or may be a shilling, to the clerk for the affidavit, besides a penny for the ticket. Articles are pawned that are worth only one shilling, and even less; I have known a penny to be got on a couple of children's frocks." The value of the article pledged is usually about three times that of the sum given; on a hat worth three shillings, for instance, one shilling is got. Articles of small value are generally redeemed; the regular time in which they can redeem articles is six months, but fourteen days are afterwards granted by the pawnbroker. If not redeemed, they are sold by auction. The balance goes into the
p.82
pawnbroker's pocket, the people not supposing that it could be claimed; they never heard of such a thing. The pawnbroker generally sells the unredeemed pledges at his own premises in the town, previously announcing the auction; and if the goods do not bring a large price, so that he can pay himself well, he takes them in again to his house and sells them by private sale. The people are very willing to buy at a pawnbroker's auction, where they think they get bargains, but would be ashamed of wearing a coat so purchased if they knew it belonged to a neighbour.
The number of retail spirit shops in the barony is decreasing, partly in consequence of a temperance society, established in the parish six or seven years ago, and partly, according to the testimony of Branagan, because of the scarcity of money. The poor drink because they fancy that they cannot, in any other way, obtain equal sustenance for an equal sum. Others resort to spirits literally for the purpose of warming themselves. Notwithstanding the decrease of the spirit shops in some parts of the barony, there were twenty-seven
p.83
of these licensed houses in Rathfriland, the population being only 2000. There were also some smugglers. In Hilltown, where we lodged, there were ten public houses licensed to sell spirits, the total number of houses being only twenty-one; yet the people appeared sober. I do not recollect seeing one drunken man during the fortnight we stayed there. The practice is common in Ireland to unite the business of whiskey seller with that of grocer; and little dirty huts, almost unapproachable in consequence of dunghills, are scattered along the road side, exhibiting a sign of invitation to the traveller to buy whiskey. These places of course hold out a strong temptation to the poor labourer or his wife, when they go to buy a little salt or soap.
In the course of the examination, the respectability, intelligence, and shrewdness of the small farmers of six or ten acres surprised me: they instantly saw the drift of the questions put to them, and answered them without reserve, and I am persuaded, honestly, and to the best of their belief.
p.84
The circumstance that would strike an Englishman as most remarkable on first investigating the agriculture of Ireland, is the enormous price given for the tenant-right or good-will of a farm, in addition to a full and sufficient rent. £10 per Irish acre is no unusual price. This cripples the farmer, and keeps him in debt as long as he lives. Nor is the practice confined to farms held under lease; those held from year to year are purchased, and if belonging to a kind landlord fetch nearly as much as those held on lease, though the tenant is liable to be turned off whenever the landlord chooses. Such is the confiding disposition of these people, when the conduct of the landlord, whatever be his politics or religion, is regulated by honourable principles. This confidence in their superiors is one amongst many proofs of the docility of the Irish people, and the ease with which they may be governed. I was anxious to ascertain how these farmers, always poor and in debt, could possibly raise the money to buy the farms. This I never got satisfactorily answered, and I believe they scarcely know. Some go to England
p.85
and earn money by trading, shearing, and other work. They borrow the greatest part by becoming sureties for each other; in this they exhibit great kindness. Under this system of paying tenant-right, the landlord has always security for his rent, even supposing the stock to be driven off, because he would take advantage of the property which the tenant had in the farm, and the new tenant always pays the arrears of rent, the balance only being paid to the off-going tenant. It has also naturally induced the tenant to consider that he has a beneficial interest in the farm; the practice, by long usage having assumed the character of a right — so much so, indeed, that in some places, (the county of Donegal, for instance,) a tenant, I am told, sells his interest in his farm in spite of his landlord. A father leaves it by will to his children, or gives it whenever he pleases, and it passes by will like real property. This may account for the peculiar hardships the people feel, and the way in which they prosecute their revenge against the landlord, or his steward, and the incoming tenant. In many parts of Ireland the
p.86
difficulty consists not so much in dispossessing the present tenant, as in securing peaceable possession for his successor.
The distance between Rathfriland and Hilltown is from three to four miles. A considerable tract of bog land, which yields excellent fuel, lies between these places. On a fine day, at this season, the bog presents a lively appearance, from the number busily employed upon it. Some work the bog into a pulp, and afterwards spread it on the surface to drain; then it is formed into ribs with the edge of the hand, and when sufficiently solid is cut with a large knife in the lines marked out, and set up to dry. This turf is superior to that merely cut out of the raw bog. Turf is nearly the only fuel used for all purposes.
I visited several of the small farms belonging to the Marquis of Downshire near Hilltown, on the west side of the road leading to Rostrevor, where I found the houses any thing but comfortable: the floor of earth containing little pools of water that had found its way through the roof. In these pools the ducks were paddling, and the
p.87
large pigs walked in and out of the cabins at pleasure. Some of the dwellings were without a chimney, the smoke making its escape by holes in the roof and at the door. About eight acres of land were attached to each of these houses on the side of a damp hill. The rent was £4. Some had a cow and horse, but others had neither, not even a pig. Their furniture consisted of a table, and sometimes a chair or a stool or two. Some cabins on the east side of the road, on an estate belonging to Mr. Barrington, are miserable dwellings, but whether a middleman intervenes I do not know. I went into one, twelve feet long by eight wide, the height being short of six feet. This apartment was the only one for a man, his wife, and three children. Two acres of poor land near the mountains were let with this cabin. The rent of the whole was £2. The woman met us at the door, and with a cheerful smile invited us in. She and her children looked healthy and happy, though the husband could not obtain work, and they live on potatoes alone, frequently without even salt. They were not
p.88
worth a chair, and the mother sat on the ground. The happy countenance of this woman astonished me; and I feel that if I were to call her poor I should do her an injustice. The beds, if they deserve the name, consist of a little straw on a few poles, raised a foot from the floor, with a scanty blanket and some old rags. If a poor family can procure a pennyworth of buttermilk occasionally to be divided amongst six of them they are satisfied; two shillings per annum supply them with tea and sugar, which they only use on particular occasions. These poor Irish have frequently not even potatoes sufficient to satisfy hunger, and are compelled to seek subsistence from the weeds of the field and the sea-weed on the shore. It is not unusual to boil for food the weed called prasagh, a sort of sinapis, or what in some parts of England is called ketlock or ranch; and where the hawthorn is allowed to grow, they eat the berry or haws, which they call skeehony. Yet their misery is borne with cheerfulness; they are uniformly polite and hospitable, and ever ready to communicate any information which it
p.89
may be in their power to supply. Although I have travelled through most of the counties in Ireland, I never yet met with an instance of incivility on entering their cabins, however abruptly; on the contrary, a hearty welcome was always given, my call seemed to excite their gratitude, and good wishes, warmly expressed, constantly attended my departure. The submission of these poor creatures to the hard destiny entailed upon them, is remarkable. Upon one occasion a woman observed to me that "they had hard fare and disappointments, but God prepared the back for the burthen." By way of giving them some little comfort, I frequently remarked, that they and their children were far more healthy than the rich; they would reply — "God so ordered it for the poor." The men sometimes carry their demonstrations of kindness and affection for each other further than is agreeable to an Englishman. At fairs I have seen them embracing each other, but I believe whiskey had a share in the transaction. This practice, once very common, is, however, on the decline.
p.90
The women in this part are certainly not of elegant form, being short and broad, with stout legs, probably the effect of hard labour and exposure to the weather. The mention of the word elegant reminds me of the frequent use of it in Ireland; it is introduced upon almost every possible occasion. For instance, the driver of my car, when I asked him if the road over the hills were good, replied, "It is illicant enough." When driving, they are incessantly in action, either crying out to the horse "golaang" or applying the whip, which, fortunately for the poor beast, is a clumsy soft instrument, attributable I hope to a merciful feeling in the driver. The harness is generally tied together with strings and ropes, some of which are sure soon to give way. From a break down of the car, or jingle, as it is aptly called in some parts, you are not likely to suffer much injury, even should it be a fracture of the axletree, or should the wheel come off, or the horse fall, as it is so easy to dismount. They are also very convenient: I have frequently left the vehicle to pick up a plant by the road
p.91
side, or a piece of stone on the road, and remounted without the driver's knowledge.
The roads through the county are under the care of a county surveyor at a salary of about £300 per annum, and are kept in repair by a cess upon the county. The traveller is not annoyed as in England by the interruption of toll-bars. About Hilltown the roads are repaired with granite, which, though hard, does not cement; if rain should fall heavily in the night, and the morning following be dry and windy, they are dusty before noon. The fences consist chiefly of furze, which, when in flower, must be excessively gay and beautiful; even in its green state it greatly enriches the appearance of the country. This district is extremely populous, the people consisting chiefly of small farmers, each of whose stock may be said generally to be composed of two cows, together worth £10, a horse worth £5, a plough worth £1. 10s., and a cart worth £5, making a property whose aggregate value may be accordingly estimated at £21. 10s. These, I ought to mention, are the cost prices.
p.92
On the 17th of July the ear of the oat was just visible, and the flax particularly beautiful. It is extremely interesting to watch its slender stems of pale green waving gently before the breeze, and its little flower of delicate blue expanding or closing in obedience to the alternate influences of light and gloom.4
Formerly, when the linen manufacture was in a more flourishing state, several flax mills were in busy operation on the river Ban, below Hilltown. These we found in a state of ruin. Many of the corn mills have shared the same fate, as the farmers could not afford to keep the corn to grind, but were obliged to sell it immediately for the rent.
Not only has almost every mean cottage or farm-house two huge gate-pillars with conical tops built of stone and mortar, whitewashed, and accordingly
p.93
very glaring on a bright day, but the field gates are usually honoured in the same manner. Whether the prevailing adoption of these ungainly structures arises from the likeness they bear to the ancient round towers, or whether their use is occasioned by the scarcity of entire stones and wood, I could not ascertain. Slender iron gates are frequently attached to them, which makes their disproportion appear the greater.
The attention of strangers cannot fail to be arrested by the extraordinary spectacle which some of the clover fields present, of cows, horses, sheep, goats, and pigs, each fastened by a rope or chain to a stake. The pigs have a belt before and behind the shoulders, to which the rope is attached; and such is the force of education (for the Irish pig is domesticated in the family of its owner) that a practice at which an English pig would assuredly rebel, is borne with the most patient unresisting submission. Goats are frequently tied at the road-side, one rope sometimes fastening a couple. This practice of confining cattle within a small circle is not only barbarous
p.94
and injurious to them, but wasteful both of food and manure. If the clover were mown and given in the stall, its growth would be more luxuriant, the produce certainly more than double, and the manure, being all saved instead of all wasted, would be preserved and at the farmer's command. This confinement to the stake must be injurious, I repeat, to the animals. They suffer the peltings of the storm at one time, and the scorching rays of the sun at another; are deprived of the luxury of water except once a day, their food is soiled by being trampled on, and they are tantalized with fresh food being within an inch of their mouths, and yet beyond their reach.
Our impression, after finishing the examination at Rathfriland, and inspecting the various farms, cabins, and labourers, was, that but little was required of government beyond a system of poor laws, applicable chiefly to the aged and infirm. The rest might be accomplished by the opulent and influential inhabitants of the neighbourhood, most of whom, I feel persuaded, are sincerely desirous to assist in rescuing their country from
p.95
the degradation into which she has fallen. Though cases of extreme suffering doubtless exists this part of the country is far from being in so distressed a condition as we expected to find it.
p.96